Aerodynamics 2

=Aerodynamics II The important stuff!=

 Thrust and Power

 Fuel Flow  is the rate of consumption by the engine measured in pounds per hour

· The thrust required curve represents the amount of thrust necessary to equal the planes total drag during equilibrium flight

· There are no difference between the L/DmaxAOA and corresponding values between the power and the thrust curves unless there are changes made to the actual aircraft or the operating environment

 Maximum Endurance  is the maximum amount of time that an airplane can remain airborne on a given amount of fuel.

· It is found at L/DmaxAOA and velocity for a turbojet

· It is found at a velocity less than L/Dmax and an AOA greater than L/DmaxAOA for a turboprop

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34C max endurance is found at 420 ft-lbs. of torque

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If weight is increased, max endurance will decrease because you will need a higher fuel flow for the increase in velocity to produce lift. (Tr inc and Pr inc with weight; higher velocity required to produce lift; to increase velocity, you must increase fuel flow; Tr will inc for turbojet and Pr will inc for a turboprop

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If the altitude is increased, maximum endurance will increase. The pilot will increase power but use less fuel because fuel flow will decrease. The Tr and PR will increase but the temperature will rapidly decrease

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If the flaps or landing gear are down, the max endurance will decrease

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Wind will not have any effect on max endurance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· When flying at a max endurance AOA and maintaining constant altitude, you are using the minimum thrust required

<p class=MsoNormal> Maximum Range <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the maximum distance traveled over the ground for a given

<p class=MsoNormal> amount of fuel.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is found at a velocity greater than L/Dmax and an angle of attack less than L/DmaxAOA for a turbojet

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· It is found at a L/DmaxAOA and velocity for a turboprop

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34C max range is found at 580 ft-lbs. of torque with no wind <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The maximum range is much faster than the maximum endurance 

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If weight is increased, max range will decrease</b> because you will need a higher fuel flow to increase the velocity to produce more lift. (Tr inc and Pr inc with weight; higher velocity required to produce lift; to increase velocity, you must increase fuel flow; Tr will inc for turbojet and Pr will inc for a turboprop. The plane will fly at a greater TAS, but the same AOA for maximum range </b>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If the altitude is increased, maximum range will increase. An airplane flying at a higher altitude will fly at a greater TAS while burning less fuel. Turbojets will do better than turboprops with the increase because the prop will lose efficiency

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If the flaps or landing gear are down, the max range will decrease

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A headwind will decrease max range while a tailwind will increase it

<p class=MsoNormal> Angle of Climb (AOC) </b> is a comparison of altitude gained to distance traveled (max altitude inc to min distance traveled)

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Used to takeoff from short airfields surrounded by high obstacles

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is found at L/DmaxAOA and velocity for a turbojet

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· It is found at a velocity less than L/Dmax and an AOA greater than L/DmaxAOA for a turboprop

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34C max AOC is at 75 KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A headwind increases a planes AOC and a tailwind decreases it

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If weight is increased, the maximum angle of climb is decreased 

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The maxAOA occurs at the point where the largest Te occurs</b>

<p class=MsoNormal> Rate of Climb (ROC) </b> is a comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach that altitude

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Used if you need to expedite your climb to an assigned altitude due to conflicting traffic

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is found at a velocity greater than L/Dmax and an angle of attack less than L/DmaxAOA for a turbojet

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· It is found at L/DmaxAOA and velocity for a turboprop

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34 max ROC is at 100 KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Wind does not affect the ROC performance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If weight is increased, the maximum ROC will be decreased

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· ROC is decreased with weight because the heavier aircraft will decrease both maximum thrust excess and maximum power excess

<p class=MsoNormal> Ceilings:

<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>T-34’s maximum operating ceiling is 25,000’ because it is not pressurized

<p class=MsoNormal> Maximum Glide Range</b> is when we need to glide as far as possible to reach a safe landing area

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is found at L/Dmax and the best velocity occurs at L/Dmax regardless of engine type

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The AOA of attack where the lift to drag ratio is largest

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34 Vbest is at 100 KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If weight increases, the airplane will fly faster and descend faster, but max glide range and the AOA of the two planes will remain the same

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If altitude is increased, the max glide range will increase

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A head wind will decrease max glide range while a tail wind will increase it

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If AOA is changed from max glide range, the glide path will be steeper

<p class=MsoNormal> Maximum Glide Endurance</b> is when we need to stay in the air longer while a runway is being cleared

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is found at L/Dmax velocity and the AOA is greater than L/DmaxAOA

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34 max glide endurance is found at 87 KIAS, with 100KIAS being used as the emergency landing pattern speed

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If altitude is increased, the max glide endurance will increase

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Wind will not effect the max glide endurance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· To changes from maximum glide range to maximum endurance, you must increase the AOA to a value greater than L/Dmax which equates to a minimum Power Required deficit

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· For an aircraft to glide at a constant AOA L/Dmax, as the aircraft descends, the TAS must remain constant

<p class=MsoNormal> Windmilling <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is when you have no engine power and you leave the blades flat to the relative wind and will significantly increase the drag of the aircraft. You must feather them into the wind (feathering the propeller).</b>

<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>Normal Command  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is velocity above maximum endurance that have airspeed stability

<p class=MsoNormal> Reverse Command </b> is velocity below maximum endurance that have airspeed instability. If you are at normal command, you will stay there with any increase or decrease in the planes airspeed. If you are at reverse command, a decrease in power would lead to a stall while an increase would lead to a normal command setting

<p class=MsoNormal> - It is caused by increased induced drag with decreasing velocity

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Aircraft Systems Control</b>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Trimming reduces the force required to hold control surfaces in a position necessary to maintain a desired flight attitude

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· During trimming, trim tabs must always be moved in the opposite direction as the control surface

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· In a T-34, aileron trim is adjusted after takeoff and seldom requires further adjustment during flight. Only the left aileron has a trim tab that moves

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· In a T-34, the rudder trim compensates for prop wash and torque, which vary with power. Right rudder trim is required for power increase and slower airspeeds while left rudder trim is required for power reductions and faster airspeeds

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· In a T-34, elevator trim will be adjusted to maintain various angles of attack while changing airspeeds. Elevator trim is adjusted up at slower speeds and down at higher speeds

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The elevator has a neutral trim tab on a T-34

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The rudder and elevator trim will be adjusted frequently during flight because they are very sensitive to power and airspeed changes

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The forces that act at the control surface’s center of gravity and aerodynamic center must be balanced around the hingeline in order to regulate control pressure, prevent control flutter, and provide control-free stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Power changes take precedence at low speeds (?)

<p class=MsoNormal> Aerodynamic Balance</b> is used to keep control pressures within reasonable limits. Ie, when the trailing edge of the control surface is deflected in one direction, the leading edge deflects into the airstream forward of the hingeline.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34 uses shielded horns on the elevator and rudder and an overhang on the ailerons

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34 controls CGs are located on the hingeline

<p class=MsoNormal> Mass Balancing  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is a way to gain a balance between control response and stability. The T-34 control center of gravity’s are located on the hingelines. To locate the CG on the hingeline, weights are placed inside the control surface in the area forward of the hingeline (shielded horn and overhang)

<p class=MsoNormal> Conventional Controls</b> are the forces applied to the stick and rudder pedals that are transferred directly to the control surfaces via push pull tubes, pulleys, cables and levers. If an external force moves the control surface, the stick or rudder pedal will move in the cockpit. This action is called reversibility and gives the pilot feedback

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34 uses conventional controls

<p class=MsoNormal> Power Boosted Controls </b> have mechanical linkages with hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical boosters to assist the pilot in moving the controls in the same way power steering assist a car’s driver

<p class=MsoNormal> Full Power or Fly by Wire</b> control system, the pilot has no direct connection with the control surfaces. Feel is only provided by Artificial Feel means. These devices create or enhance control feedback under various flight conditions

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The T-34 uses trim tabs, bobweights and downsprings to provide artificial feel to the pilot. The T-34 uses a Servo Trim Tab <span style='font-family: "Comic Sans MS";color:green'> to provide artificial feel <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>. It moves in the opposite direction as the ailerons and helps the pilot to deflect the ailerons to make maneuvers easier <span style='color:green'>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34 uses an Anti-Servo Trim <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"; color:green'> in the rudder to provide artificial feel. When the rudder is displaced, the anti-servo tab moves in the same direction at a faster rate. Thus, the more rudder pedal is pressed, the greater the resistance a pilot will feel

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34’s elevator uses a Neutral Trim Tab  <span style='font-family: "Comic Sans MS"'>because the trim tabs do not provide the desired type of artificial feel. This tab maintains a constant angle to the elevator when the control surface is deflected. The elevator uses both a bobweight and a downspring to provide artificial feel. The downspring increases the force required to pull the stick aft at low airspeeds when required control pressures are extremely light. The bobweight increases the force required to pull the stick aft during maneuvering flight

<p class=MsoNormal> Stability

<p class=MsoNormal> Stability  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is the tendency of an object to return to its state of equilibrium once disturbed from it

<p class=MsoNormal> Static Stability</b> is the initial tendency of an object to move toward or away from its original equilibrium

<p class=MsoNormal> Dynamic Stability</b> is the position with respect to time, or motion of a no object after a disturbance

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Positive Static Stability </b> is when an object has an initial tendency toward its original position after a disturbance. Negative Static Stability <span style='font-family: "Comic Sans MS"'> is for its initial movement to be away from equilibrium. <b>Neutral Static Stability </b> is when the initial tendency to accept the displacement position as a new equilibrium

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Positive dynamic stability </b> an object oscillates across the equilibrium till it finally settles back at the original equilibrium through damped oscillation.

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Neutral dynamic stability</b> : an object moves about the equilibrium position but the oscillations never dampen out

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Negative dynamic stability</b> : an object moves across equilibrium but at a greater distance with each pass and will never return to equilibrium and is described as having <b>divergent oscillation</b>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Static stability does not endure dynamic stability, but Static instability ensures dynamic instability

<p class=MsoNormal> Stable <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> the displacements from equilibrium will be reduced until the object is again at its original equilibrium

<p class=MsoNormal> Unstable <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is if the displacement may or may not increase, but the object never returns to its original equilibrium

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Maneuverability </b> is the ease with which an airplane will move out of its equilibrium position. It is opposite of stability. The more maneuverable an aircraft is, the easier it departs from equilibrium, but the less likely it is to return to equilibrium

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If a component’s aerodynamic center is behind the airplane’s CG, the component will be a positive contributor to longitudinal stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If a component’s aerodynamic center is in front the airplane’s CG, the component will be a negative contributor to longitudinal stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The wings of most aircraft are negative contributors to longitudinal static stability (ie straight wings)

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Sweeping the wings back is a positive contributor to longitudinal static stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The fuselage is a negative contributor of longitudinal stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The horizontal stabilizer will have the GREATEST <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> positive effect on longitudinal stability because its moment is so far behind the CG

<p class=MsoNormal> Neutral Point  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is the location of the center of gravity, along the longitudinal axis, that would provide neutral longitudinal static stability. It is the aerodynamic center for the whole plane

<p class=MsoNormal> Sideslip <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is when an airplane yaws, its momentum keeps it moving along its original flight path for a short time

<p class=MsoNormal> Sideslip Angle <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> b <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the angle between the longitudinal axis and the relative wind

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Sideslip Relative Wind</b> is the component of the relative wind that is parallel to the lateral axis

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Straight wings have a small positive effect on directional stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Swept wings will further increase directional stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Fuselage is a negative contributor to the directional stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The vertical stabilizer is the GREATEST positive contributor to directional stability of a conventionally designed airplane

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Dihedral wings are the GREATEST positive contributor to lateral static stability. Anhedral wings are the GREATEST <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> negative contributor to lateral static stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A high mounted wing is a positive contributor and a low mounted wing is a negative contributor to lateral static stability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Swept Wings are laterally stabilizing

<p class=MsoNormal align=right style='text-align:right'><span style='font-family: "Comic Sans MS"'>Directional Divergence  <span style='font-family: "Comic Sans MS"'>is a condition of flight in which the reaction to a small initial sideslip results in an increase in sideslip angle. Directional divergence is caused by negative directional static stability

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Spiral Divergence </b> occurs when an airplane has strong directional stability and weak lateral stability

<p class=MsoNormal> Dutch Roll <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the result of strong lateral stability and weak directional stability

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Phugoid Oscillations</b> are long period oscillations (20 to 100 seconds) of altitude and airspeed while maintaining a nearly constant AOA

<p class=MsoNormal> Proverse Roll <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the tendency of an airplane to roll in the same direction as its yawing. When an airplane yaws, the yawing motion causes one wing to advance and the other to retreat.

<p class=MsoNormal> Adverse Roll  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is the tendency of an airplane to yaw away from the direction of the aileron input.

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Pilot Induced Oscillations</b> are short period oscillation of pitch attitude and AOA. PIO occurs when a pilot is trying to control a plane’s oscillations that happen over approximately the same time span as it takes to react. IF PIO is encountered, the pilot must rely on the inherent stability of the airplane and immediately release the controls if altitude permits. If not, freeze the stick slightly aft of neutral. <span style='color:green'>T-34’s are not subject to this type of oscillations because they do not have longitudinal static stability

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Asymmetrical Thrust</b> is any airplane with more than one engine can have directional problems if an engine fails. The thrust from the working engines will create yawing moment towards the dead engine

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Slipstream Swirl</b> is the propeller imparted corkscrewing motion to the air. This air flows around the fuselage until it reaches the vertical stabilizer where it increases AOA. When a propeller driven airplane is at high power setting and low speed, the increased AOA creates a horizontal lifting that pulls the tail to the right and causes the nose to yaw left

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Propeller Factor (P-Factor)</b> is the yawing moment caused by one prop blade creating more thrust than the other. If the relative wind is above the thrust line, the up-going propeller blade on the left side creates more thrust since it has a larger AOA with the relative wind. This will yaw the nose to the right. If the relative wind is below the thrust line, such as in flight near stall speed, the down going blade is below the thrust line, the down going blade on the right side will create more thrust and yaw the nose to the left

<p class=MsoNormal> Torque <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is a reactive force based on Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion. A force must be applied to spin the propeller. An equal force but opposite in direction is applied to the plane. T-34 uses an elevator trim tab to compensate for torque. If the trim is set at 0, the left trim tab is 4.5 degrees down while the right is 4.5 degrees up

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Gyroscopic Precession</b> is based on the properties of spinning objects. When a force is applied to the rim of a spinning object, parallel to the axis of rotation, a resulting force is created in the direction of the applied force, but occurs 90 degrees in the direction of rotation. Pitching the T-34 up produces an applied force acting forward on the bottom of the propeller disk. The resulting force would act 90 degrees ahead in the direction of propeller rotation (clockwise) and cause the plane to yaw right

<p class=MsoNormal> Spins

<p class=MsoNormal> Spin  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is a aggravated stall that results in Autorotation

<p class=MsoNormal> Autorotation  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is a combination of roll and yaw that propagates itself and progressively gets worse due to asymmetrically stalled wings

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The down going wing in a roll has a higher AOA than the lower AOA of the up going wing

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The up going wing has a greater Cl due to its smaller AOA and therefore has greater total lift. This results in a continued rolling motion of the plane

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The down going wing has a higher Cd due to its increased AOA. This results in continued yawing motion in the direction of roll

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· T-34 will spin erect or inverted

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The turn needle is the only reliable indicator of a spin direction. The balance ball gives no useful information of spin direction and should be disregarded

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The higher the pitch altitude, the greater the vertical component of thrust and the lower the stall speed

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The weight in the wing tanks creates a moment during a spin that is large to overcome

<p class=MsoNormal> -

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>T-34 Erect Spin:</b>

<p class=MsoNormal> Altimeter rapidly decreasing, Airspeed 80-100kts, AOA 30 units pegged, Turn Needle in the direction of spin (110-170 degrees per second)

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>T-34 Inverted Spin</b>

<p class=MsoNormal> Altimeter rapidly decreasing, Airspeed 0kts, AOA at 2 to 3 units, Turn needled pegged in direction of spin (140 degrees per second). The T-34 is prohibited to doing intentional inverted spins

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>- T-34 </b> will not enter flat spins

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Ailerons rarely assist in spin recovery

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The rudder is generally the principal control for stopping autorotation <span style='color:green'>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· T-34 use dorsal fins, strakes, and ventral fins to decrease the severity of the spin characteristics

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Progressive Spin </b> if upon recovery you put in full opposite rudder but inadvertently maintain full aft stick, the plane will begin autorotation in the opposite direction

<p class=MsoNormal> Aggravated Spin <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> results from pushing the stick forward while maintaining rudder in the spins direction, it ends up being an extreme case of an accelerated spin.

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>T-34 Spin Recovery:</b>

<ol style='margin-top:0in' start=1 type=1> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Landing gear and flaps up </li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Verify spin indication by checking AOA, airspeed, and turn needle </li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Apply full rudder opposite of turn needle </li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Position stick forward of neutral </li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Neutralize controls as rotation stops </li> <li class=MsoNormal style='mso-outline-level:1;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops:list .5in'> Recover from ensuing unusual attitude </li> </ol>

<p class=MsoNormal> - The horizontal control surface deflects the relative wind towards or away from the vertical stabilizer

<p class=MsoNormal> Turning Flight

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· In straight and level flight, total lift is equal to weight, but in a turn, only the vertical component of the lift vector opposes weight. If the pilot does not increase the total lift vector, the airplane will lose altitude because the weight will be greater than Lv

<p class=MsoNormal> Load Factor  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is the ration of total lift to the airplane’s weight and is sometimes called g’s

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Accelerated Stall Speed</b> because it represents the stall speed at velocities greater than minimum straight and level stall speed, and load factors greater than one

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Stall speed increases when we induce a load greater than one on the airplane

<p class=MsoNormal> Load <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is a stress producing force that is imposed upon an airplane or component

<p class=MsoNormal> Strength <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is a measure of material’s resistance to load

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Static Strength </b> is a measure of a material’s resistance to a single application of a steadily increasing load or force

<p class=MsoNormal> Static Failure <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the breaking of a material due to a single application of a steadily increasing load or force

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Fatigue Strength </b> is a measure of a material’s ability to withstand a cyclic application of load or force

<p class=MsoNormal> Fatigue Failure <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the breaking of a material due to cyclic application of load or force

<p class=MsoNormal> Service Life <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the number of applications of a load or force that a component can withstand before it has a probability of failing

<p class=MsoNormal> Creep <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is when a metal is subjected to high stress and temperature it tends to stretch or elongate

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Limit Load Factor</b> is the greatest load factor an airplane can sustain without any risk of permanent deformation (the maximum load factor in normal daily operations)

<p class=MsoNormal> The T-34’s limit factors are 4.5 to –2.3 G’s

<p class=MsoNormal> Overstress/Over-G’s <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the condition of possible permanent deformation or damage that results from exceeding the limit load factor. These actions reduce the service life of an aircraft because they weaken the airplane’s basic structure. ALWAYS report an overstress/over G to maintenance, visually inspect the aircraft in the air and inspect it upon reaching the ground

<p class=MsoNormal> Elastic Limit <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the maximum load that may be applied to a component without permanent deformation.

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Ultimate Load Factor</b> is the maximum load factor that the airplane can withstand without structural failure. There will be some permanent damage deformation at this point. If you exceed the ULF, structural failure is imminent. It is usually 150% of the limit load factor

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If a metal is affected by low values of applied stress, the metal will incur no permanent deformations and the material will return to its original unstressed shape when the stress is released

<p class=MsoNormal> V-n/G Diagram <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is a graph that summarizes an airplane’s structural and aerodynamic limitations. It is a plot of IAS vs the Load Factor

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Accelerated Stall Lines</b> represent the maximum load factor that an airplane can produce based on stall speed and are determined by ClmaxAOA.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· As airspeed increases, more lift can be produced without exceeding stalling AOA <span style='font-size:10.0pt'> 

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If excessive AOA is applied while at operating maneuver speed, the aircraft will stall before an overstress occurs

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Maneuvering Point</b> is the point where the accelerated stall line and the limit load factor line intersect. The IAS here is called Maseuver Speed (Va) or cornering velocity. <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> It is the lowest airspeed at which the limit load factor can be reached.

<p class=MsoNormal> The T-34s maneuver speed is 135 KIAS.

<p class=MsoNormal> Redline Speed <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is the vertical line on the right side of chart and is the highest airspeed that your plane is designed to fly Vne is determined by Mcrit, airframe temperature, excessive structural loads, or controllability limits

<p class=MsoNormal> Excessive horizontal stabilizer loads can be encountered in the T-34 at speeds in excess of 280 KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Aileron Reversal</b> is caused by exceeding the Vmax of the aircraft

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Safe Flight Envelope</b> is the portion of the V-n Diagram that is bounded by the accelerated stall lines, the limit load factor and the redline speed. It is affected by gross weight, altitude, configuration, asymmetrical loading, and gust loading

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If an airplane’s weight decreases by burning fuel or expending ordinance, the limit load will increase

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If altitude increases, the indicated redline airspeed must decrease in order to keep a subsonic airplane below Mcrit. Above 20000 feet, the T-34s redline airspeed decreases to 245 KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The safe flight envelope is affected by the configuration. With flaps, landing gear or canopy open, the redline speed decreases

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The primary danger in flying between the maneuver speed and the redline speed in turbulent air is overstress

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Asymmetrical Loading</b> refers to the uneven production of lift on the wings caused by rolling pullout, trapped fuel, or hung ordinance. Because asymmetric loading is cumulative with pilot induced loading, the limit factor due to pilot induced loads should be reduced by 2/3 of the normal load limit. In the T-34 the maximum load factor during asymmetric loading is 3 G’s

<p class=MsoNormal> Gust Loading <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> refers to the increase in G load due to vertical wind guest. The load imposed is dependent to the velocity of the gust. Intentional flight through severe or extreme turbulence is strictly prohibited in a T-34

<p class=MsoNormal> NATOPS states that the maximum airspeed for the T-34 in moderate turbulence is 195 KIAS.

<p class=MsoNormal> Turn Rate  <span style='font-family:Symbol'>f <b> </b> is the rate of heading change, measured in degrees per second

<p class=MsoNormal> Turn Radius <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> (r) is a measure of the radius of the circle the flight path scribes

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If velocity is increased for a given angle of bank, turn rate will decrease, and turn radius will increase

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If angle of bank is increased for a given velocity, turn rate will increase and turn radius will decrease

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Turn rate and radius are independent of weight

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Standard Rate Turn (SRT)</b> is one in which 3 degrees of turn are completed every second. A rough estimate used to determine standard rate turns in the T-34 is angle of bank equal to 15-20 percent of airspeed

<p class=MsoNormal> Skid  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is caused by using too much rudder in the desired direction of turn. The yawing movement is toward the inside of the turn and the balance ball is defelcted toward the outside to centrifugal flow. In a skid, turn radius will decrease while turn rate will increase. Skids are dangerous because the plane will roll inverted if stalls occur

<p class=MsoNormal> Slip  <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'>is cause by insufficient rudder in the desired direction of the turn. In a slip, turn radius increases while the rate decreases

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If an airplane increases its bank, it will need to increase its total lift and true power on stall speed to remain at constant altitude 

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· <b>Making turns at the maneuver airspeed is the best trade off between getting the smallest radius</b> turn while achieving the best rate of turn for a given aircraft

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Take OFF/Landing Performance</b>

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Wake Turbulence and Wind Shear</b>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The minimum airspeed for takeoff is approximately 20% above the power off stall speed, while landing speeds are 30% higher.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Indicated airspeeds for takeoff and landing will nto be affected by changes in air density.

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Rolling Friction Fr</b> accounts for the affects of friction between the runway surface.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Factors that determine minimum landing distance are weight, velocity, thrust, drag, and rolling friction

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Weight is the greatest factor in determining takeoff distance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Three factors decreasing density: elevation, humidity and temperature

<p class=MsoNormal> 4-H’s <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> that refers to the high, hot, humid and heavy. They present the worst conditions to takeoff or land in because the distance can be so greatly increased

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Upon using high lift devices, the decreased will be seen in takeoff distance because they decrease both the indicated and true takeoff speeds

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A head wind will decrease the takeoff distance by reducing the ground speed associated with the takeoff velocity

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· During landing, the primary consideration is the dissipation of KE which ends up being Fr+D-T with Friction being Desirable

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· As weight increase, so will landing and takeoff distance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· An increase in elevation, temperature or humidity will increase landing distance

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· High lift devices decrease landing distances

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· A headwind reduces landing distances because it reduces ground speed

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· An increase in density will decrease the take off distance

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Aerodynamic Breaking</b> is accomplished by increasing the parasite drag on the airplane by holding a constant pitch attitude after touch down and exposing more surface to the relative wind. Drag Chutes, Spoilers, Speed Breaks are additional examples. It is used at the beginning of the landing roll to save the breaks later on and is the most efficient

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Mechanical Breaking</b> is effective only after enough weight is transferred to the wheels and the airplane has sufficiently slowed and is done through large disk breaks on the wheels

<p class=MsoNormal> Beta <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> breaking is when you use reverse thrust off the propeller pitch to shorten the landing roll. This thrust greatly decreases the net decelerating force

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· The rudder is the primary means of maintaining directional control in crosswinds during takeoff and landing

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The T-34’s nose wheel provides directional control if the nose wheel is contracting the surface 

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· <b>Nosewheel/liftoff/touchdown speed </b> is the velocity necessary for the rudder to be able to control the aircraft with out it weathercocking or vaning into the wind

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The major consideration for determining maximum authorized crosswind components is the ability to maintain directional control at low speeds. Maximum crosswind components for takeoff or landing in a T-34 with full flaps is 15 KIAS and with out 22KIAS

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Always use the maximum wind angle and the maximum gust velocity to determine the crosswind component

<p class=MsoNormal> Ground Effects <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is a phenomenon that significantly reduces induced drag and increases effective lift when the airplane is within one wingspan of the ground.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The downwash at the trailing edge of the wind is unable to flow downward because of the surface, thus adding to the planes total lift

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· As an airplane takes off and leaves the ground effects, induced drag increases and lift decreases

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Entering ground effect (during landing) increases effective lift and decreases induced drag, but total lift remains constant

<p class=MsoNormal> Hydroplaning <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> causes the airplane’s tires to skim atop a thin layer of water on the runway

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If there is more than .1&quot;, hydroplaning can occur

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Vhp = 9 * Tire Pressure &frac12;

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· Weight has no effect on the velocity that an airplane will hydroplane at, but a heavier plane has to takeoff and land at a much higher velocity which increases the chances of hydroplaning

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol;color:green'>· Beta settings should be used as much as possible to slow or stop the T-34 if you suspect hydroplaning

<p class=MsoNormal> <b>Wingtip Vortices</b> are spiraling masses of air formed at the wingtips when an airplane produces lift. Flying into vortices may instantly change the direction or the relative wind and cause one or both wings of the trailing plane to stall or disrupt airflow in the engine inlet inducing a compressor stall

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· It is very difficult for planes with short wing spans to counter the imposed roll of wingtip vortices

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The most significant factor affecting your ability to counteract the roll is the relative wingspan between the two planes

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Vortices are generated from the moment an airplane rotates for takeoff tell the nose wheel touches down for landing

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The greatest vortex strength occurs when generating airplane is Heavy, Slow and Clean. Weight is the most significant factor in the strength of wingtip vortices

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· The most important pilot technique for survival during wake turbulence is to avoid it!

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· When landing behind a large airplane, stay at or above the larger planes final approach path and land beyond its touchdown point

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Ensure that an interval of at least two minutes has elapsed before conducting a takeoff after a larger plane has landed

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If taking off after a large plane, ensure that your landing or takeoff rotation is before the large planes point of rotation

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Small airplanes should avoid operating within three rotor diameters of any hovering helo

<p class=MsoNormal> Wind Shear <span style='font-family:"Comic Sans MS"'> is defined as a sudden change in wind direction and/or speed over a short distance. It is most often caused by jet streams, land or sea breezes, fronts, inversions and thunderstorms

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Wind shear can be very complex combinations of wind velocities and as they become complicated require the pilot more difficulty to correct

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· May change the airflow over the aircraft. The velocity of the relative wind can be altered causing immediate changes in the indicated airspeed and/or AOA

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· During landings and takeoffs, wind shear can become very dangerous

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Look at wind shear situations in the book

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Notice wind shears thru virga, localized dust blowing, rain shafts diverging from the core of the cell, and lightning of tornado like activity

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· Head winds are the best for takeoff and landings!

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l0 level1 lfo1'><span style='font-family:Symbol'>· If density altitude increase, takeoff velocity increases and the thrust and net acceleration force decrease

=Practice Exams= You can download a zip file. of the exams. It would be nice if somone felt like typing them up on here so people don't have to download and try to read these scans.